Research Article | Open Access

Ecological and Health Risks Assessment of Levels of Heavy Metals in Drinking Water of Baghdad City, Iraq

    Wisam Thamer Al-Mayah

    Department of Basic Science, College of Dentistry, University of Wasit, Iraq


Received
17 Apr, 2024
Accepted
24 May, 2024
Published
31 Dec, 2024

Background and Objective: Public health is at risk in drinking water due to toxic substances which may have adverse health effects on humans. Based on untreated urban wastewater and manufacturing, farming and other man-made operations, drinking water supplies are vulnerable to contaminates in this region. Consequently, maintaining the health of drinking water is a rising concern in Iraq. The study aimed to estimate levels of heavy metals in the drinking water of Baghdad City, Iraq. Materials and Methods: To evaluate the quality of drinking water, the samples measured nine concentrations of heavy metals (Iron (Fe), Aluminum (Al), Lead (Pb), Zinc (Zn), Nickel (Ni), Cadmium (Cd), Fluoride (F), Manganese (Mn) and Copper (Cu) in drinking water samples from eleven water treatment plants (11WTPs) in Baghdad City to improve public health interventions. Results: Heavy metal concentrations were measured using an atomic absorption spectrometer (Model Phoenix-986 AAS) and contrasted with permissible limits established by Iraqi Guidelines and Water Chemical Limits Requirements (417/2011) and the World Health Organisation (WHO). Heavy metal concentrations were used to measure health risk assessments using the HPI and MI models. The results showed that mean HPI values for all seasons except in spring were 91,697 above the critical pollution index value of 100, indicating that 11WTPs are critically polluted with heavy metals. Conclusion: The MI results have been used to achieve the heavy metal toxicity among the sampling stations. Furthermore, no work was done on HPI and MI models in Baghdad city related to 11WTPs.

Copyright © 2024 Wisam Thamer Al-Mayah. This is an open-access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 

INTRODUCTION

Human beings are continuously subjected to numerous harmful chemicals in our atmosphere, which may contribute to complicated diseases such as endocrine destruction, genotoxic carcinogen, leukemia, dermatitis, enteritis, liver cirrhosis and respiratory diseases1. Both such man-made hazardous chemicals will eventually reach water source. Such toxic chemicals from domestic wastewater, irrigation, factories and other human activities penetrate waterways, streams and groundwater and can contaminate drinking water2-4. Contamination of drinking water with heavy metals is a public health issue because of their ingestion and human accumulation. Chemical pollutants in drinking water can present major threats to human safety directly via the intake, absorption and inhalation pathways5,6. Thus, in recent years, the study of water pollution by heavy metals has been the primary concern of environmental scientists5. Treatment plants (11WTPs) in Baghdad City have the capacity to generate 2.8 million liters of drinking water per day for consumers7,8. The majority of 11WTPs use conventional water treatment systems, which are divided into three phases: Pretreatment (filtration and aeration process), prechlorination (coagulation and flocculation process) and post-treatment (sedimentation and filtration process)9,10. In recent years, quality indices (WQIs) have been useful for health risk assessment by drinking water exposure to toxic heavy metals11. The possible effect of heavy metals on human health helps to quickly assess. The value of >1 for MI is a warning threshold even if the concentration of (Ci) for all elements is less than the maximum permitted value (MACi)12. The Metal Index has been used as an indicator for drinking water.

The metal index (MI) another index used for drinking water is a model that takes into consideration the possible additive effect of heavy metals on human health which helps to quickly assess the overall quality of drinking water and the value of >1 for MI is a warning threshold even if the mean concentration (Ci) for all elements is less than the maximum permitted value (MACi)12. The aim of study was to estimate levels of heavy metals in drinking water of Baghdad City, Iraq.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study site: The study field, located in middle Iraq's City of Baghdad, is situated between Latitudes 33°14'-33°25' N and Longitudes 44°31'-44°17' E, with millions of inhabitants covering a total region of 1000 km2. Water treatment plants (11WTPs) in Baghdad City relied on Table 1 for the treatment of raw water from the Tigris River for their drinking water.

Experimental methods: From September 2018 to August 2019, water samples were obtained monthly across four seasons, in the current analysis. After the delivery of drinking water to the houses through the water supply network, the treated water samples were obtained using clean polyethylene bottles from the eleven treatment plants (11WTPs). All drinking water samples for heavy metals (Fe, Al, Cr, Pb, Zn, Ni, Cd, Ag, Mn and Cu)13.

Calculations of the model HPI: The evaluation of water quality works based on heavy metal concentration. The heavy metal pollution index (HPI) was formulated by Dede et al.12:

(1)

Where:

  Wi = Unit weightage of the ith parameter
  K = Constant of proportionality can be calculate from formula proposed by AL-Dulaimi and Younes5and Al-Mayah et al.6
  Si = Iraqi accepted drinking water quality standard prescribed by (417/2011) as shown in Table 1

The quality rating (Qi ) of the parameter is calculated by:

(2)

Where:

  Mi = Monitored value of heavy metal of ith parameter can be obtained from Table 3
  Ii = Ideal value of the ith parameter by Eldaw et al.14, Mensoor and Said15
  Si = Iraqi accepted drinking water quality standard prescribed by Issa and Alshatteri11
  = Indicates numerical difference of the two values, ignoring the algebraic sign

Table 1: Features of drinking water treatment plants (11WTPs) in Baghdad City, involved in this study
ID Name of station (WTPs) Design capacities Location (area) Year of establishment Network situated
1 Al-Karkh 1,300,000 m3/day Al-Karkhside 1984 Medium
2 Sharq Dijla 90,000 m3/day Al-Rusafa side 1978 Medium
3 Al-Sader 90,000 m3/day Al-Rusafa side 2013 Good
4 Al-Baldiat 225,000 m3/day Al-Rusafa side 2012 Good
5 Al-Kadhimiya 112,5000 m3/day Al-Karkhside 2011 Good
6 Al-Karama 220,000 m3/day Al-Karkhside 1953 Medium
7 Al-Wathba 130,000 m3/day Al-Rusafa side 1932 Bad
8 Al-Qadisya 140,000 m3/day Al-Karkhside 1965 Medium
9 Al-Dora 113,000 m3/day Al-Karkhside 1982 Medium
10 Al-Wahda 72,000 m3/day Al-Rusafa side 1959 Medium
11 Al-Rasheed 90,000 m3/day Al-Rusafa side 1963 Bad

Table 2: Illustration of MI-WQI categories
MI-WQI values Rating Class
<0.3 Very pure I
0.3-1.0 Pure II
1.0-2.0 Slightly affected III
2.0-4.0 Moderately affected IV
4.0-6.0 Strongly affected V
>6.0 Seriously affected VI

Finally, the HPI model is then calculated as follows:

(3)

Where:

  Wi = Unit weightage of the ith parameter
  Qi = Quality rating

Calculations of the model MI: The metal index (MI) was proposed by Caeiro et al.10. This index can be calculated value manually by the following equation:

Where:

  MI = Metal index
  Ci = Mean concentration of each metal
  MAC = Maximum allowed concentration for each metal that can be obtained from the standard (Table 2)


RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Spatial and temporal variations of heavy metals concentration: The findings of this study indicate that drinking water content in most 11WTPs in Baghdad City is not appropriate for customers. Annual mean heavy metal concentrations in drinking water samples follow the order of Fe>Cu>Zn>Al>F>Mn >Pb>Ni>Cd as shown in Table 3 and Fig. 1. The results were compared with the chemical limits of Iraqi Criteria and Standards of Water (417/2011) and the drinking water quality standards of the World Health Organization (WHO)14,15. Most heavy metal concentrations in drinking water exceeded the permissible limits except for Zn and F for Iraqi requirements and Zn, Ni, F, Mn and Cu for WHO standards. High concentrations of heavy metal in 11WTPs are due to the source of drinking water from the Tigris River primarily induced by untreated sewerage inflows from rural, residential and industrial establishments. On the other hand, lack of worker experience in the 11WTPs and differences in purification process efficiency as well as rehabilitation and corrosion of distribution network pipes were the main reasons why the concentrations of heavy metals in drinking water increased. Exposure to elevated amounts of heavy metals in drinking water can contribute to acute and persistent poisoning, such as osteodystrophy, Alzheimer's disease, organ injury, lung cancer, cirrhosis, harm to the liver, nervousness and even death16-18.

Fig. 1: Annual mean of heavy metal concentrations at 11WTPs of
Baghdad City

Table 3: Annual mean of heavy metal concentrations at different WTPs of Baghdad City
ID WTPs Fe (ppm) Al (ppm) Pb (ppm) Zn (ppm) Ni (ppm) Cd (ppm) F (ppm) Mn (ppm) Cu (ppm)
1 Al-Karkh 0.964 0.312 0.037 0.657 0.0274 0.0035 0.229 0.114 0.708
2 Sharq Dijla 0.616 0.305 0.0423 0.622 0.0319 0.0037 0.225 0.126 0.814
3 Al-Sader 0.384 0.118 0.025 0.515 0.0215 0.0031 0.192 0.057 0.529
4 Al-Baldiat 0.419 0.129 0.0173 0.37 0.0233 0.0034 0.194 0.073 0.528
5 Al-Kadhimiya 0.427 0.133 0.0283 0.398 0.0218 0.0033 0.206 0.065 0.526
6 Al-Karama 1.131 0.39 0.042 0.558 0.0298 0.0041 0.221 0.128 0.903
7 Al-Wathba 1.748 0.443 0.0685 0.882 0.0364 0.0047 0.319 0.194 1.067
8 Al-Qadisya 1.2989 0.217 0.0496 0.695 0.0325 0.0042 0.274 0.146 0.884
9 Al-Dora 1.324 0.326 0.0588 0.891 0.0336 0.0044 0.291 0.185 0.962
10 Al-Wahda 0.965 0.285 0.0453 0.817 0.0326 0.0038 0.228 0.136 0.824
11 Al-Rasheed 1.821 0.472 0.0821 0.975 0.0385 0.0049 0.381 0.234 1.285
WHO standard   0.3 0.2 0.01 3 0.07 0.003 1.5 0.4 2
(2017)15,26 0.3 0.2 0.01 3 0.02 0.003 1 0.1 1

Heavy metal pollution index (HPI): The summary of drinking water sample HPI model values from all 11 sampling sites (11WTPs) and all seasons is presented in Table 4-7. Based on the estimated HPI model of the studied heavy metals by drinking water consumption, mean values for all seasons have adverse health effects for consumers except for spring (HPI = 91.697), because the values obtained are above the critical pollution index of 100. In the order of Al-Rasheed>Al-Wathba>Al-Dora>Al-Qadisya>Al-Karama> Al-Wahda>Sharq Dijla>Al-Karkh>Al-Kadhimiya>Al-Baldiat>Al-Sader, HPI indices for WTPs in the research region were identified. The actual cause for this fluctuation in the HPI values at these WTPs was variations in concentrations of heavy metals, outdated network pipes, irregular repairs, industrial runoff and other intense human activities.

For the same reasons, it was noted in Fig. 2 that the water treatment plants (WTPs) deteriorate in the downstream trend of the Tigris River from north to south within the City of Baghdad. Furthermore, previous studies19-21 supported the current study (Table 8).

Table 4: Calculate HPI-WQI of WTPs during autumn (September, October, November, 2018)
Qi
WTPs Fe (ppm) Al (ppm) Pb (ppm) Zn (ppm) Ni (ppm) Cd (ppm) F (ppm) Mn (ppm) Cu (ppm) SUM
WIQI
HPI-WQI
value
Al-Karkh 238 101.5 330 31.73 105 130 95.2 87 93.6 266.6 9.581
Sharq Dijla 240 135 230 24.5 90 106.7 9.9 73 89.3 229.7 8.256
Al-Sader 124 68.5 190 25.03 110 106.67 9.4 64 58.3 223.1 8.017
Al-Baldiat 103.4 95 130 11.66 125 116.67 12.2 98 97.2 200.3 7.199
Al-Kadhimiya 110 91.5 140 27.17 110 116.67 2.6 69 84.1 219.5 7.89
Al-Karama 98 157.5 590 23.76 90.5 90 9.3 82 75.3 289.5 10.4
Al-Wathba 280 105 590 33 155 130 8.3 82 75.6 323.2 11.61
Al-Qadisya 250.3 147 450 27.63 115 110 8.5 96 89.4 293.6 10.55
Al-Dora 192.4 132.5 530 27.1 125 103.3 7.5 78 92.6 290.3 10.43
Al-Wahda 183.4 104 330 32.77 135 126.67 1.3 98 90.3 267.1 9.601
Al-Rasheed 244.7 110 741 32.9 135 126.6 11.3 95 85.6 348.9 12.538
Wi 3.33 5 0.198 6.613 9.92 0.661 1.984 0.1 0.02 ∑Wi = 27.826
Total HPI value = 105.542

Table 5: Calculate HPI-WQI of WTPs during winter (December, January, February, 2019)
Qi
WTPs Fe (ppm) Al (ppm) Pb (ppm) Zn (ppm) Ni (ppm) Cd (ppm) F (ppm) Mn (ppm) Cu (ppm) SUM
WIQI
HPI-WQI
value
Al-Karkh 67 46.5 190 12.8 55 103.4 6.6 41 46.3 213.3 7.667
Sharq Dijla 72 41 530 25.1 95 86.67 9 35 73.1 273.6 9.834
Al-Sader 85.7 44 150 14.7 90 70 8 65 53 187.4 6.736
Al-Baldiat 67.34 34.5 170 9.37 7.5 90 8.5 39 41.1 191.7 6.89
Al-Kadhimiya 45.7 46 180 5.13 9.5 80 9.2 38 39.1 195.6 7.031
Al-Karama 131.4 90 450 27.8 120 93.3 12 71 80.3 266.3 9.572
Al-Wathba 190.4 105.5 620 31.1 130 110 13 99 72.2 313.2 11.25
Al-Qadisya 84 49 550 22.84 90 96.67 62 95 82.5 285.1 10.24
Al-Dora 139.7 68 580 26.84 125 106.7 11 73 87.1 301.3 10.83
Al-Wahda 117.7 36 290 20.4 110 96.7 11 53 61.9 234.7 8.436
Al-Rasheed 239 65 910 29.94 105 106.7 15 86 25.2 365.5 13.14
Wi 3.33 5 0.198 6.613 9.92 0.661 1.984 0.1 0.02 ∑Wi = 27.826
Total HPI value = 101.626

Table 6: Calculate HPI-WQI of WTPs during spring (March, April, May, 2019)
Qi
WTPs Fe (ppm) Al (ppm) Pb (ppm) Zn (ppm) Ni (ppm) Cd (ppm) F (ppm) Mn (ppm) Cu (ppm) SUM
WIQI
HPI-WQI
value
Al-Karkh 177.7 99 180 23.36 61 83.34 11.6 19 41.1 199.5 7.172
Sharq Dijla 33.67 76 210 7.43 59.5 70 13.5 58.5 11.4 196.1 7.048
Al-Sader 35.67 46 160 11.7 81 70 8.4 81 42.4 188.4 6.772
Al-Baldiat 31 40.5 150 16.9 71.5 93.34 9.1 64.4 30.2 193.7 6.963
Al-Kadhimiya 29.67 49.5 180 10.36 78.5 73.34 8.9 49.1 28.5 200.5 7.207
Al-Karama 108 92.5 170 27.1 72.5 80 9.3 89 61.1 223.4 8.031
Al-Wathba 175 137 580 25.53 102.5 116.7 8.2 97 97.2 307.8 11.06
Al-Qadisya 38.33 39.5 150 17.86 68.5 73.33 11.5 84.7 31.1 227.5 8.177
Al-Dora 171 55 450 25.13 85.5 73.33 10.9 81.6 67.8 249.7 8.975
Al-Wahda 66 95 190 7.03 62.5 76.67 11 96.2 51.3 198.1 7.122
Al-Rasheed 245.7 96 820 31.6 127.5 130 31.2 113 85.9 366.4 13.17
Wi 3.33 5 0.198 6.613 9.92 0.661 1.984 0.1 0.02 ∑Wi = 27.826
Total HPI value = 91.697

Metal index (MI): Table 8, 9 summarizes the classification and experimental findings of the 11WTP model for low-quality water with MI value of 155.93, indicating that the 11WTPs are seriously impaired by metal contamination, this was in accordance with a survey performed by 17-20. From the results of this analysis for 11WTPs, it was observed that the MI values for all the samples under review were >1 suggesting that there is a possible health risk for those consuming drinking water in the City of Baghdad, especially in the last five stations (Al-Wathba, Al-Qadisya, Al-Dora, Al-Wahda and Al-Rasheed), as can be seen in Fig. 3. Due to the broad flow of waste from medical Baghdad District, chemical and mineral processing plants, plant oil factories, textile mills and Rostamia sewage stations, which are located in this study area, a major change occurred at these stations during the study time22-26.

Fig. 2: Spatial and temporal variations of HPI values in the 11
WTPS at Baghdad City

Table 7: Calculate HPI-WQI of WTPs during summer (June, July, August, 2019)
Qi
WTPs Fe (ppm) Al (ppm) Pb (ppm) Zn (ppm) Ni (ppm) Cd (ppm) F (ppm) Mn (ppm) Cu (ppm) SUM
WIQI
HPI-WQI
value
Al-Karkh 167 97.5 381 19.76 168.5 116.67 18.5 112 99.5 274.2 9.856
Sharq Dijla 109.3 85 331 22.43 135 130.67 15.5 139 95.7 270.1 9.708
Al-Sader 133.7 58.5 305 17.87 109.5 116.66 11 105 57.2 252.2 9.065
Al-Baldiat 77 74.5 243 11.43 115.5 103.4 12 112 42.9 235.1 8.45
Al-Kadhimiya 117.6 79 235 10.43 119 110 13 109 58.7 231.6 8.324
Al-Karama 158.3 131.5 495 23.23 174.5 130 17 122 92.4 306.6 11.02
Al-Wathba 185.6 136.5 624 28.37 206 159.6 19.2 153 102.1 355.7 12.785
Al-Qadisya 145.7 106.5 517 24.4 142.5 127 17.3 166 122.7 316.3 11.367
Al-Dora 129.6 78.5 593 31.87 175 139 19.6 121 97.5 331.2 11.905
Al-Wahda 125 84 405 19.9 184.5 123.4 17 126 98.2 284.6 10.23
Al-Rasheed 265 161.5 792 31.83 210 162.33 19.8 194 109.3 382.8 13.759
Wi 3.33 5 0.198 6.613 9.92 0.661 1.984 0.1 0.02 ∑Wi = 27.826
Total HPI value = 116.112

Table 8: Mean MI-WQI of WTPs during four seasons
Heavy metals (ppm) Mean concentrations (Ci) Highest permitted value (MAC)i* MI
Fe 0.9816 0.3 3.272
Al 0.2845 0.2 1.422
Pb 0.0418 0.01 4.18
Zn 0.6709 3 0.224
Ni 0.0297 0.02 1.487
Cd 0.0039 0.003 1.3
F 0.2509 1 0.2509
Mn 0.1325 0.1 1.325
Cu 0.8209 1 0.8209
∑ MI = 14.602
*Iraqi criteria and standards of water’s chemical limits and ICS: 13.060.20 number 417/2011

Table 9: MI-WQI recorded at different sampling WTPs
MI
ID WTPs Fe (ppm) Al (ppm) Pb (ppm) Zn (ppm) Ni (ppm) Cd (ppm) F (ppm) Mn (ppm) Cu (ppm) ∑MI-WQI value MI-WQI scale Water quality rating
1 Al-Karkh 3.213 1.56 3.7 0.219 1.37 1.3 0.229 1.14 0.708 13.43 >6.0 Seriously affected
2 Sharq Dijla 2.05 1.525 4.53 0.207 1.59 1.3 0.225 1.26 0.814 13.5 >6.0 Seriously affected
3 Al-Sader 1.28 0.59 2.5 0.171 1.075 1.033 0.192 0.57 0.529 7.94 >6.0 Seriously affected
4 Al-Baldiat 1.396 0.645 1.73 0.123 1.165 1.13 0.194 0.73 0.528 7.64 >6.0 Seriously affected
5 Al-Kadhimiya 1.423 0.665 2.83 0.132 1.09 1.1 0.206 0.65 0.526 8.62 >6.0 Seriously affected
6 Al-Karama 3.77 1.95 4.2 0.186 1.49 1.366 0.221 1.28 0.903 15.36 >6.0 Seriously affected
7 Al-Wathba 5.826 2.215 5.85 0.294 1.82 1.57 0.319 1.94 1.067 20.9 >6.0 Seriously affected
8 Al-Qadisya 4.329 1.085 4.96 0.231 1.625 1.4 0.274 1.46 0.884 16.24 >6.0 Seriously affected
9 Al-Dora 4.413 1.63 5.21 0.297 0.168 1.47 0.291 1.85 0.962 16.31 >6.0 Seriously affected
10 Al-Wahda 3.216 1.425 4.13 0.272 1.53 1.3 0.228 1.36 0.824 14.28 >6.0 Seriously affected
11 Al-Rasheed 6.07 2.36 6.41 0.325 1.925 1.64 0.381 2.34 1.285 22.73 >6.0 Seriously affected
Total MI value = 155.93

Fig. 3: MI values for all studied metals in each sample in WTPs


CONCLUSION

The results of HPI and MI models revealed that all WTP drinking water samples are unsuitable for human consumption as per the total MI value (155.93) and the annual mean HPI value (103.744), respectively. Due to their high concentrations in drinking water, people are most exposed to Fe, Pb, Al, Ni and Cd among all the prominent heavy metals examined in this study, while they are least exposed to Zn, F, Cu and Mn. In addition, the proposed MI and HPI models can provide accurate and reliable information on quality of drinking water and will serve as a useful tool for future sustainable management of WTPs.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Public health is at risk in drinking water due to toxic substances which may have adverse health effects on humans. Consequently, maintaining the health of drinking water is a rising concern in Iraq. Estimate levels of heavy metals in the drinking water of Baghdad City, Iraq need to be studied. Heavy metal concentrations were measured using an atomic absorption spectrometer and contrasted with permissible limits established by Iraqi Guidelines and Water Chemical Limits Requirements. Heavy metal concentrations were used to measure health risk assessments using the HPI and MI models. The MI results have been used to achieve the heavy metal toxicity among the sampling stations. Furthermore, no work was done on HPI and MI models in Baghdad City related to 11WTPs.

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How to Cite this paper?


APA-7 Style
Al-Mayah, W.T. (2024). Ecological and Health Risks Assessment of Levels of Heavy Metals in Drinking Water of Baghdad City, Iraq. Asian J. Biol. Sci, 17(4), 558-566. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.558.566

ACS Style
Al-Mayah, W.T. Ecological and Health Risks Assessment of Levels of Heavy Metals in Drinking Water of Baghdad City, Iraq. Asian J. Biol. Sci 2024, 17, 558-566. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.558.566

AMA Style
Al-Mayah WT. Ecological and Health Risks Assessment of Levels of Heavy Metals in Drinking Water of Baghdad City, Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences. 2024; 17(4): 558-566. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.558.566

Chicago/Turabian Style
Al-Mayah, Wisam, Thamer. 2024. "Ecological and Health Risks Assessment of Levels of Heavy Metals in Drinking Water of Baghdad City, Iraq" Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17, no. 4: 558-566. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.558.566